4.26.2004

Feathers on Dinosaurs before Feathers on Birds

A Scientific Journal featuring:

Dinosaur Feathers: Which Came First, the Feather or the Bird?*...



The feathers of a bird are an example of the many evolutionary novelties that came forth from the findings of fossils. These fossils provide evidence that primitive feathers originated from carnivorous, bipedal theropod dinosaurs even before the origins of modern-day birds and flight came about. The wings of modern-day birds are homologous in structure to the forelimbs of their earthbound theropod ancestors. This developmental theory, based upon the studies of Prum, Brush, and other participating individuals, explains exaptation, in which the origin of feathers could have been used for other functions, such as: insulation, water repellency, courtship, camouflage, and defense even before the function of flight. The different uses in these functions are evident from the various arrangements on the components that make up a feather: the barbs, barbules, and rachis that help structure the usage of feathers. For example, the plumulaceous (downy) type of feathers has no vane, but has soft and tangled plumes that provide lightweight insulation, whereas the pennaceous type of feathers provides the aerodynamic advantage for flight.

This developmental theory (exaptation) encompasses the idea that the structure and function of feathers evolved over time by the gradual modifications of earlier structures for new and different functions each time. Therefore, this would further support Darwin's theory of evolution, in which these significant changes are being made by natural selection and descent with modification through an accumulation of small changes.

Literature Cited


Prum, Richard O., Brush Alan H. 2003. Dinosaur Feathers: Which Came First, the Feather or the Bird? Scientific American. Mar 2003: 83-93.

--Reviews by Kathy Nguyen, 2004.


* The full-length article is not displayed for public view, because it is archived and is only accessible by members only. For more information, please visit the site: Scientific American Digital.

4.25.2004

Getting the Buff Look: Is it really worth it?

The New York Times featuring:

Body-Conscious Boys Adopt Athletes' Taste for Steroids*...



Questions: Do we really truly know ourselves? Do we like what we see when we look in the mirror?

Answer: Perhaps not always.

The struggle for acquiring a desired self-image has always been a part of the American culture. (Now how about in other countries? Why is it that we often stress about this so much---or maybe a bit too much?) In fact, it's like an epidemic raging across the youth of our society---mostly, in adolescents. While we are concerned about targeting the nation's health problems in obesity, "the mania over instant bulk[ness] shows another side of the struggle for [this ideal] self-image."

Ironically, one would think that normally women and young adolescent girls would be concerned or even obsessed about their self-image---that is, getting that pretty supermodel-skinny look and then becoming dangerously anorexic in doing so. Well, this article proves otherwise. Men and young adolescent boys are just as self-conscious of their own bodies as well---this time, the focus is on getting those attractive rippling muscles and six-pack abs in the quickest way possible: steroids.

According to the most recent national survey, nearly half a million teenagers across the U.S. use steroids and other steroids derivatives (i.e. androstenedione) each year. This includes male adolescents who aren't even active in school sports or any type of sports. The reason isn't just to "get buff" in order to have the strength and speed for sports anymore. Instead, as one high school senior student remarked that guys just "do it for girls" and "for the look."

It's sad that now boys as young as 10 years old are using steroids just to get that "buff look" in just five weeks or less. However, as doctors noted, the increase use of such drugs can not only lead to side effects, but they can also basically "shut down normal adolescent development in male bodies." For example, many of these steroid products "can stifle bone growth" and "lead to testicular shrinkage, liver tumors and development of male breasts." In addition to this, a recent medical testimony in Congress proves that some of those effects can be heartbreakingly irreversible, "like stopping bone growth in children who would thus otherwise continue to develop."

Why and how does this happen? For one thing, steroids falsely signal the body to stop producing its own testosterone (male hormones), which then leads the body to think that it has produced enough, and thus resulting in a big "buff" body size.

However, dangerous or not, these male adolescents adopt this popular "muscle makeover" by just simply taking these steroids, when originally the steroid supplements called androstenedione (as mentioned earlier), for instance, are used legitimately by adults for recovery from muscle injuries and to improve strength and endurance.

Even though it is illegal for young people under 18, they don't care just so as long as they get that attractive body look no matter what the circumstances are (and even the means to obtain them), even though they are aware of those dangerous side effects.

But what is this all boiling down to? Self-identity. Or at least the search part of it. Of course, we've all read Shakespeare's Hamlet with those famous lines of "To thine own self be true" (Act I, Scene III). But exactly how true are we to ourselves? Why should we go through all that trouble money-wise and health-wise to obtain an ideal self-image when in fact it destroys our bodies at the same time? Should we un-invent mirrors and re-create the American culture? It's ironic that the mass media have originally used commercials to annoyingly interrupt TV programs and to give us a little break to go to the bathroom or grab a snack, but now, the modern-day mass media bombard us with hundreds of advertisements daily, controling our lives and making us revolve around these commercials (subconsciously or not). And sadly, commericials have the greatest influence on adolescents.

Indeed, the adolescent period has always been known as the most confusing period, but how should we help our youth make the transition from childhood to adulthood as smoothly as possible? Compared to other countries, the American youth goes through more problems than any youth in other countries. These problems include peer pressure and violence as some of the top reasons adolescents go through so much stress and depression.

For males, maybe getting the buff look isn't worth it at all. There are the costs and benefits that have to be examined of obtaining that ideal look. We shouldn't just pressure our youth with these facts, but help them understand and be aware that having a self-image isn't all important. What's more important is that we have to instill the truth in our youth, saying that popular culture is to blame and that whatever the mass media are saying distorts the truths of reality.

Works Cited


Egan, Timothy. "Body-Conscious Boys Adopt Athletes' Taste for Steroids." The New York Times. 22 Nov. 2002: 3 pages. The New York Times on the Web. 22 Nov. 2002.

--Reviews by Kathy Nguyen, 2004.


* This article is not displayed for public view, because it is archived and is only accessible by members only.

4.22.2004

Why Do Good Guys Always Wear White?

A Psychological Journal featuring:

Why Good Guys Wear White: Automatic Inferences About Stimulus Valence Based on Brightness*...



Overview


This article explores concepts as to why and how we classify abstract experiences/ideas according to concrete experiences, and thus the investigators of this article performed a study to determine the association between the brightness of colors (light/dark) and the categorization/valence of words (i.e. positive or negative, good or evil, etc.). They based their studies on other studies and gave a few concepts to corroborate how complex the human thought is (in relation to cognitive development), because as one concept says, "such abstract thought requires, and is built on, prior sensorimotor representations."

Method


First, the investigators in this study set up a relevant chromatic division to determine the valence of words versus the brightness/color (2 x 2 repeated measures design) by having participants' respond manually using a computer. And in the five different studies, they emphasized and even varied the speed and accuracy of the participants' responses, as well as determined the conditions and the effects of the association of mismatched brightness and word valence through a response-deadline procedure, emphasis only on font color, and task-dependent nature of the interaction. The investigators also selected 100 words (50 positive & 50 negative) for this study. The subjects in this study were 169 unselected undergraduates who received extra course credit.

Results


The authors of this study generally provided sufficient evidence for their findings. To summarize their findings in the five studies, the participants generally associated good/positive words with a bright color, whereas bad/negative words with a dark color. Although the study gave mismatched valence words versus color, and the investigators pressured the participants with the dependent variables of accuracy and speed, the participants were more accurate associating good/positive words with bright colors and vice versa. Also, the investigators noted that with each study, they noticed that the participants' responses were at times, delayed because of what is asked of them. For example, a negative word on a white background is presented, and they are asked to evaluate only the font color, and thus, they encounter a conflicting, two-response tendency.

Discussion


As discussed earlier, abstract concepts are rooted in physical metaphor/sensorimotor representation. These studies helped support this claim, because human abstract thought are influenced by physical cues, and thus, the stimulus of color affected the participants' responses. Therefore, one cannot conceptualize the affect of a stimulus without any physical representation of some sort. This study is an important contribution to science in that it not only applies to racial/ethnical judgment of people but that it is also "ubiquitous in popular culture" when we watch movies, TV shows, etc. Because human development is first exposed to physical stimuli, we automatically associate abstract concepts with those stimuli, which are essential and continue throughout the entire human lifespan. Although there is an association between the valence of words and color, this at times, may bias our responses and how we see the world around us when we see a dark-skinned (or even an African American) individual, for example. This article not only helps us to understand how we form our thoughts, but may also help us to deviate from such biases in the future, which may give rise to future studies.

Personal Statement


Overall, this is generally an interesting study, which gave an impressive example of cognitive development. I now understand the underlying concepts as to why and how "the good guys always wear white" when it comes to watching movies and TV shows. Although I was particularly disappointed in that the participants in the study did not represent the overall population, it would be interesting in comparison to perform this study on other ethnic groups instead of Caucasians, as the investigators did.

References


Meier, B. P., Robinson, M. D., & Clore G. L. (2004). Why Good Guys Wear White: Automatic Inferences About Stimulus Valence Based on Brightness. Psychological Science, 15 (2), 82-87.

--Reviews by Kathy Nguyen, 2004.


* Volume 15, Issue 2 is not displayed online.

4.15.2004

Crafting the Ideal Male Identity

Art Exhibit featuring:

PG-13: Male Adolescent Identity in the Age of Video Culture...



Society plays a huge role in gender differences, especially when it comes to the media as depicted in six different video installations by artists Janet Biggs and Barbara Pollack in PG-13: Male Adolescent Identity in the Age of Video Culture. Because the contemporary world lays out the gender schemas for the society, we are prone to conformity, following the guidelines of how we are "supposed" to act and behave according to our gender. In this exhibit, in particular, Biggs and Pollack examine the confusing world of male adolescents growing up in today's society. These video installations not only display impressive imagery and sound, but also bring out the disturbing ways of how video games, sports, and music videos construct these gender stereotypes in male behaviors.

For example, Pollack's Perfect Dark and America's Army pieces force us to think about the influence of such violent video games on youth. Close-up images of a young boy's face show that while he is playing the video game, he seems to be desensitized by such violent imagery, and thus acquire a higher level of aggressiveness as a personality factor fashioned by society for the gender role of men. Interestingly, America's Army is a video game used by the U.S. Army to recruit young male teenagers to enlist in the military.

With the piece of Ritalin, Biggs projects a nine-year-old boy performing a drum solo, which is viewed simultaneously with a three-screen video of a horse stomping in tune to the boy's drumming. This not only illustrates how drugs can alter the mind and creates conformity in behavior, but also warns us of the potential dangerous side effects of anti-psychotic drugs. Another similar theme is also displayed in Haldol, which shows repeated juxtapositions of a boy dribbling a basketball, a horse violently attacking the camera lens, and a rushing waterfall.

Finally, in the video footage of Stronger by Pollack shows three adolescent boys watching a Britney Spears' music video called Stronger (2002), in which sexuality is explored. Also, with the pop-up commentaries of these adolescents along the way, this artistic piece impressively undermines the manipulative strategies the marketing world uses to brainwash adolescents to approach their sexuality aggressively and "in the macho-guy way." This similar theme is also expressed in Biggs' Chamblee, with high school athletes practicing their wrestling drills. The artist uses this scenario as a way to not only illustrate male aggression and sexuality, but power, control, and anxiety.

This extended exhibit is a perfect example of Erikson's Theory for the adolescence period, in which adolescents encounter the "identity versus role confusion" dilemma. With the media continuously streaming and pounding sexual music videos, aggressive sports, and violent video games on the minds of male adolescents, it's no wonder how these young people struggle in confusion and at times, painful frustration, growing up in the contemporary world, as they make their transition from childhood to adulthood. If we were to raise today's younger generation with good parental skills, we must take into consideration that the adolescence period is the most fragile in the human lifespan. If we were to help our children grow up peacefully and happily, making the transition into adulthood successfully and less problematic, we must teach them ways to go against these stereotypes and not to conform to the ideal male behaviors of aggression, power, and control. One way to do this is to help these male adolescents establish an androgynous mind, because having "feminine-like qualities" is an "okay thing," instead of something being ridiculed. There should be much appraise for Biggs and Pollack, for they not only capture the typical male stereotypes fabricated by society, but also show the audience the upsetting drawbacks and painful struggles these male adolescents must go through in order to determine their male identity.

References


Biggs, J. & Pollack, B. PG-13: Male Adolescent Identity in the Age of Video Culture [Art Work]. Houston, TX: DiverseWorks Art Space.

--Reviews by Kathy Nguyen, 2004.


For more information, please visit the site: DiverseWorks.